Motives in the Media essays

Intentions in the Media expositions In a world covered with modes of correspondence, few have the verifiable importance of the paper. It is a piece of what our identity is, and how we see ourselves. Their shapes, size, and shading take us all things considered to a more straightforward time, where we review our folks in a loosening up setting, finding out about the day's news. The paper has an atmosphere of genuineness that can't be denied. It is genuine, as in it has weight and consumes space. It additionally is a set up vehicle for conveying the news, data, to one little gathering of individuals, yet to the majority. It is likewise non-unfair in its methodology. The news is handed-off in text, yet additionally in pictures. One isn't required to have a degree in some control to comprehend the news. It is simply there. Words transferring realities from an essayist to a peruser. However in a World jumbled with stands brimming with various papers, how would they all endure, if the sole center is to transfer the news? It is a static vehicle of data, yet it might be said, it is extremely unique. Individuals read a similar paper, yet unpretentiously, and without their insight, they leave with various manners of thinking. The articles, or stories, or promotions have evoked a response, notwithstanding, only from time to time is it a similar response. In a World with various paper offices competing for the perusers eye, there is to a greater extent a priority then ever on the editors of these papers to pass on news and other data that will bring out a response in the getting crowd, and take into account the scholars message to sneak through. What is of intrigue is the methods by which the authors of these accounts make these multilayered responses, and furthermore the idea of the message that is gotten by the peruser. The essential mechanism for composed correspondence of data on the University of New Brunswick grounds is the Brunswickan Student Newspaper. This paper, kept in touch with an essentially understudy crowd loans charitably to an investigation of the messages being passed on to a ... <!

Essay on Shirows Ghost in the Shell -- Ghost in the Shell Essays

Shirow's Ghost in the Shell &nbsp; The genuine magnificence of Mamoru Oshii's adjustment of Shirow's Ghost in the Shell lies in its tender loving care and the sheer cohesiveness of these subtleties which on the whole structure complex thoughts and plot. In about everything about each plot component lies some bind to the key subjects of the anime. A portion of the fundamental topics manage the commodification of the fragile living creature and body; the partition between one's soul and body; and the possibility that a static situation or living being a feeble fortification. Here I will decide to concentrate on how through subtleties the film elucidates these subjects, instead of investing energy extrapolating or clarifying the topics in detail myself. &nbsp; The primary key scene to analyze is the recess halfway through the film in which Motoko meanders through the city as music is played, inciting a practically supernatural temperament. Almost all of those shots either shows the indifference of the city, or some article which appears to say something about the partition between an individual and that person's body, how the one doesn't compare to or decide the other. &nbsp; For example, Motoko sees a few ladies eating and strolling with a similar face as her own, and the watcher promptly starts to think about what else is comparable. The idea that the body doesn't in any capacity decide the character appears to be ludicrous to us, as our bodies are esteemed, and never to be purchased sold, or to top it all off, supplanted. In the swarmed, generic city (This indifference was another significant point, as that very need information on those around prompts a kind of commodification of outsiders, which is like that equivalent commodification of the body), among the thousands or a large number of individuals she co... ...when Motoko equips in the van as she and Togusa pursue the dump truck. They talk about why he was employed, and her clarification is, Overspecialize and you breed in shortcoming. It's moderate demise. Indeed, plot-wise, the main explanation that Project 2501 decides to merge with Motoko is that he doesn't wish to be more fragile by being static. &nbsp; These subtleties are essentially concise instances of assortment and tremendousness of thought put into this energized film. Its visuals do as much for the subjects as does its plot and exchange, and neither might be totally isolated. The interminable portending achieves a specific intertwined nature of plot which makes this an incredibly mind boggling yet brought together story and idea. On the whole, Ghost in the Shell made a magnificent showing of depicting its subjects as every moment of the film had something new to show, and all were identified with the absolute account.

Brave New World - A Letter to Mr. Huxley :: essays papers

Exciting modern lifestyle - A Letter to Mr. Huxley Dear Mr. Huxley During the previous hardly any weeks my class and I have been perusing your book, â€Å" Brave New World†. While perusing your book I have found a couple of enthralling issues. These issues incorporate the annihilation of the family, the utilization of medications, and polygamy (mandatory sex). These issues are intriguing a direct result of their suggestions in life today, and the successive occasions they are appeared in the book. The manners in which they are utilized to control individuals and make their life simpler, and the way that our reality is by all accounts falling into a similar state. The annihilation of the family a significant issue to me actually as a result of the pertinence it has to my life and to our evolving world. The way that the words mother, father, and so forth are viewed as obscene is especially intriguing. The family in â€Å"Brave New World† is supplanted with bottles, medical caretakers, molding, and life preparing. These progressions consider an all the more effortlessly controlled person. By not permitting an individual to have or create connections that individual is progressively responsive to his foreordained way and increasingly placated to follow the gathering. The devastation of the family is likewise an issue in today’s world. Devoice and pregnancy before marriage is pulverizing the Family. These things are making youngsters grow up with out entire families and now and again with no family. This concerns me since I don’t need our reality to wind up equivalent to the one in â€Å"Brave New World.† The issue of Use of Drugs is an undisputed top choice. While the possibility of an ideal medication that has no reactions and doesn’t leave you with a headache is fascinating. The manner in which it is utilized in the book is upsetting. The medication in the book is utilized to shield individuals from having any undesirable feelings; they are adapted to invest the greater part of there free energy in soma (the medication). This causes them not to have a lot of time to consider anything, which makes them increasingly substance to go through their time on earth doing exactly what there told and making them a controlled individual with no genuine control over yonder own life (a slave). The utilization of medications is a major issue in our present reality.

A Year Laterâ€Update on the New SAT

The new SAT, as it is commonly referred to in the test prep world, was officially launched for the first time on March 5, 2016, and has subsequently been administered seven additional times—most recently on May 6, 2017. As we recently passed the first year anniversary, we thought it would be helpful to report on what has transpired in the world of the new SAT since its March 2016 debut. How Hard Is It? After years of little movement in high school students’ average SAT scores, the scores went up rather significantly after the first administration of the new SAT. The average composite score on the old three-section SAT (each section worth 800 points) was 1500, while the average for the new two-section SAT (each section worth 800 points) is 1090. This represents about a 45-point increase per section. Theories quickly surfaced as to why the scores went up—for example, some felt that the new test had been â€Å"dumbed down,† that more relevant content based on what students actually learned in school allowed them to excel, and that the College Board was inflating scores to better compete with the ACT (in 2012 the ACT surpassed the SAT and became the most widely used college admissions test in the U.S.). Rumors and theories aside, it is true that students are no longer penalized for choosing an incorrect answer and that they also have more time to answer each questi on on the test. The consensus in the test prep community is that the score increase is a â€Å"natural† lift resulting from changes to the test and that that is a perfectly reasonable explanation. What Is the Problem with the Math Sections? According to a recent Reuters report, the design of the new SAT is defective. The math sections of the test include text-dense word problems that can cause difficulties for English-language learners, international students, and students with undiagnosed learning challenges such as dyslexia. Generally speaking, these text-heavy math sections can marginalize the performance of students who do well in math but struggle in reading. Recently David Coleman, CEO of the College Board (the nonprofit agency that administers the SAT), addressed this issue and said that moving forward there will be further simplification of the math sections. For more details about the issue with the math sections, please refer to a previous article on our website, â€Å"New SAT Test Controversy Prompts Change.† Who Is Manuel Alfaro? In late August 2016, the FBI raided the home of former College Board executive Manuel Alfaro in connection with a leak of over 400 SAT test items to Reuters earlier the same month. They seized computers and other materials, and the next day Alfaro posted on LinkedIn that â€Å"it appears that David Coleman wanted to raise the stakes. Challenge accepted!† This was a rather sensationalist turn of events for the College Board. The story behind the headline is that Alfaro was hired by Coleman in 2013, but Alfaro’s tenure with the College Board was rather short—he was gone in a year and ten months. Alfaro came from a publishing background and had most recently (before his tenure at the College Board) worked for the American Institutes for Research. After leaving the College Board, he became a whistleblower of sorts by posting on LinkedIn various unflattering accusations about his former employer. His main assertion was that the College Board lied about using best prac tices in developing the new SAT. He also maintained that even without using best practices, the College Board cannot get tests written fast enough to meet demand. For example, the identical version of the new SAT was given in both March and June 2016. Unfortunately for the College Board, Alfaro continues to post on LinkedIn and even started a White House petition to demand a federal investigation of the College Board. Fortunately for the College Board, that petition is now closed with only 218 signatures obtained—the target number was 100,000. President Donald Trump and the Common Core During the course of the election, President Trump routinely stated that the Common Core was a disaster and that education needs to be put back under the control of each individual state. The newly sworn-in Secretary of Education, Betsy DeVos, has also denounced it. What this means for the new SAT, which was designed in part to assess a student’s mastery of the Common Core, remains to be seen. In a February 7 CNN interview, President Trump's counselor, Kellyanne Conway, stated that Secretary DeVos can now move ahead with Trump’s campaign promise to repeal the Common Core State Standards. However, this is a problematic assertion. Individual states adopt content standards like the Common Core—the federal government doesn't get to choose for them, and the president by himself doesn't have the authority to scrap the standards with the stroke of a pen. The same situation exists for Congress—The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) signed by former President Obama in 2015 bans the education secretary from influencing states' decisions about standards. So for right now, neither President Trump nor Secretary DeVos can prohibit states from using the Common Core. For his part, David Coleman does not seem concerned; he was quoted effusively praising Ms. DeVos: â€Å"Betsy DeVos is a remarkable citizen leader. She believes fiercely in our founding principles of liberty and equality of opportunity. We can’t wait to see what she does next as Secretary of Education.† Conclusion There are many factors to consider when providing a comprehensive update on the new SAT. The first year has been an interesting time for the College Board and the new SAT. At A+ we will continue to monitor the issues addressed in this article and new ones that will undoubtedly continue to occur throughout 2017. We’ll keep you up to date. If you would like to discuss SAT or ACT test prep for your student, have questions about the new SAT or the ACT, or need any other information about college admissions exams, please contact us at office@aplustutoring.com or call 215.886.9188. Photo credit: Arjin J

Antegren Case Study - 8261 Words

9-408-025 NOVEMBER 14, 2007 JOSHUA MARGOLIS THOMAS DELONG TERRY HEYMANN Antegren: A Beacon of Hope As Jim Mullen, CEO of Biogen Idec, drove into work on February 19, 2004, he considered both the tremendous hope and stiff challenge generated by the company the previous day. The company had announced its intention to submit an application to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seeking approval for Antegren, a drug that Biogen Idec was developing in partnership with Elan to treat multiple sclerosis (MS). While the patient community and investors greeted the news with excitement, Mullen knew that to fulfill the promise of Antegren, he would need to make a number of crucial decisions and the company would need to bring the drug to†¦show more content†¦This process could take months and typically required extensive lead time to schedule meetings and review data with insurers—data that had to be convincing. Early FDA approval would mean short-circuiting that whole methodical process, and it was unclear if this could be finalized before the drug was approved. Although all the signals from the FDA were positive, there was also the risk that the FDA, which itself had been going through a period of upheaval, would not approve Antegren. If this happened, the reputation risk to Antegren could be irreversible, even if it was approved at a later date after further trials. Mullen knew his responsibility was nothing short of transforming the promise of Antegren into reality. He had to determine how to get the drug made and accessible to patients, and he had to lead the company to execute—in record time—on those plans. Mullen knew Biogen Idec could fulfill the high hopes of patients and investors, and now his task was to lead the company to do so. Biogen Idec History2 Cambridge, Massachusetts-based Biogen was founded in 1978, in the early days of the biotechnology industry. The company’s underpinnings rested on a tradition of great lab science. The company was one of the first to develop recombinant proteins using genetic technology. Two of its co-founders, Phillip Sharp andShow MoreRelatedManagement and Teaching Note19520 Words   |  79 Pagesecch the case for learning case collections update 2007 Quarter 4 Visit the case search section of the ecch website at www.ecch.com to identify relevant cases from the ecch collection and view over 31,000 full text inspection copies. ecch provides a free monthly e-mail update service giving details of new cases from all sources. Visit www.ecch.com to subscribe. Economics, Politics and Business Environment 9-407-049 ALLIANZ AG: BECOMING A EUROPEAN COMPANY Lorsch, JW; Chernak, A Harvard

The United States Department Of Homeland Security

Abstract As communities and public safety agencies prepare their communities to deal with possible terrorism, community policing models are effectively drawn upon for a better enforcement of preparedness. Efforts by federal and state governments are mindful of the production for events of the 1960 s Civil Defense but as a result of 9/11, there has been more action for cities and towns to develop response plans for any type of local terrorist incidents. The safety of the public is most important and falls into the hands of government agencies. Community policing encourages community input and involvement. The Priorities of Investigative Tactics of Law Enforcement The United States of America experienced one of the worst terrorist attacks in history whereby more than 3000 people lost their lives on September 11, 2001. In an effort to combat terrorism, President George W. Bush pushed for the enactment of the Homeland Security Act in 2002, which became effective on March 1, 2003. It involved reorganization of several United States’ government civil agencies, forming the United States Department of Homeland Security. The goal was not however to take care of terrorism but also included protection against other hazards, whether human-made or natural disasters (9/11 Attacks - Facts Summary - HISTORY.com, n.d.). However, the reorganization has had an impact in the way criminal investigations are conducted, trammeling the liberties of Americans. Crime investigation is oneShow MoreRelatedThe Federal Emergency Management Agency ( Fema ) Of The United States Department Of Homeland Securit y1702 Words   |  7 PagesOne dominant agency is the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) of the United States Department of Homeland Security. FEMA was created on 1979 by the late President Jimmy Carter that signed the executive order to support the citizens and first responders to ensure that as a nation, people work together to build, sustain and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from and mitigate all hazards. Another program called National Earthquake Hazards Reduction ProgramRead MoreThe Department Of Homeland Security Made Us Safer1433 Words   |  6 Pages Has the Department of Homeland Security Made Us Safer? As one of the greatest power houses in the world, the United States has attempted to keep warfare on foreign soil rather than stateside. Doing so was a lot easier when war was fought between two different countries, but nowadays, the main source of conflict around the world comes from small bands of people who reside, not in one country or place, but spread throughout the world. Traditionally military servicemen would wear some type of camouflageRead MoreThe Transportation Service Administration Directorate1734 Words   |  7 Pagesfor the Transportation Service Administration directorate, which is a directorate under the department of homeland security. The main purpose of this directorate is to ensure the safety of the United States’ transport infrastructure. The main objective of this paper is to analyze the objectives of the TSA and determine whether they are in alignment with the objectives of the department of homeland security. This ensures that the directorate works towards achieving the overall goal of the DHS as stipulatedRead MoreHomeland Security1085 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ AMERICAN MILITARY UNIVERSITY HOMELAND SECUIRTY Brittany Staley HLSS302: Paper #2 May 11, 2014 In the years since 9/11, homeland security has turn out to be frequently and generally identified as both a word and as a Federal department. However, a large amount has been learned since 9/11 concerning the array of further challenges we face. Hurricane Katrina strongly illustrates the general impact of weak preparedness andRead MoreThe Security Of Rail Transportation1609 Words   |  7 PagesThe security of rail transportation in the United States Rail Security falls into two categories, namely, passenger rail and freight rail. Passenger rail together with the mass transit is among the transportation subsector networks that provide numerous means of transportation from access points to end destinations connecting to other modes of transportation (Department of Homeland Security, 2007). While Freight railroads are key element of the nation’s transportation system that comprises of overRead MoreThe Homeland Security Act Of 20021333 Words   |  6 PagesTHE HOMELAND SECURITY ACT The Homeland Security Act of 2002 Signed into law in 2002 by President George W. Bush, the Homeland Security Act established the Department of Homeland Security to prevent terrorist attacks, minimize any damage to the nation’s citizens, and reduce the country’s vulnerability to terrorism. In response to 9/11, the government, as well as the airline industry, has gone through many changes. As of result of 9/11, the airline industry lost a total of $7.7 billion. This paperRead MoreDepartment Of Homeland Security And Terrorism1517 Words   |  7 PagesDEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY The events that occurred on September 11th, 2001, changed the United States and the rest of the world. President George W. Bush declared a war on terrorism on national television, during a joint session of Congress on September 20th, 2001. The President’s words echoed the cries of this country and during his speech he went step-by-step in his explanation of the events and actions moving forward. After explaining to the nation the details of the events that occurredRead MoreU.s. National Security Strategies And Policies1231 Words   |  5 PagesFor this progress assignment I would like to describe homeland security as it is defined in the various U.S. national security strategies and policies. In addition I would like to speak to the difference between Homeland Security and Homeland Defense to include mission areas, task, operational responsibilities, and coordinating efforts. Homeland Security The establishment of the Department of Homeland security is, undoubtedly, a result of the lessons learned and identification of the need to protectRead MoreThe Department Of Homeland Security1263 Words   |  6 PagesOne of the biggest security agencies in which we have today is the Department of Homeland Security. They were created in 2001-2003 to stop any threats or terrorist attacks towards the United States. They employ many people from different fields since they need overall intelligence on things. The department has roughly over 100 agencies branching from them. Homeland security was created not that long ago. It is located in Washington DC in the Nebraska Avenue Complex and that’s where it started.Read MoreDevelopments For Securing The Nations Ports1574 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Association of Ports Authorities (n. d) the United States is served by some 360 commercial ports that provide approximately 3,200 cargo and passenger handling facilities and there are more than 150 deep draft seaports under the jurisdiction of 126 public seaport agencies located along the Atlantic, Pacific, Gulf and Great Lakes coasts, as well as in Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Transportation Security Administration (2010), broaden the definition of† the

Job Searching and Social Media free essay sample

Social media allows users to connect with friends and family conveniently. Social media can be accessible anywhere with internet connection. And most people have internet connection. According to statista.com, â€Å"Social media can be used anywhere as long as there is internet connection.† This proves that kith and kin can connect through social media anywhere, so instead of texting next time, make sure to communicate via Snapchat or Instagram next time. Consequently, as ubiquitous social media is, the majority of the population has social media account. This adds convenience of finding most people on social media. This adds the convenience of finding most people on social media. Based on statistics from procon.org, 81% percent of Americans have social media. Social media’s frequent usage and popularity has made it an easy to use platform for many. Social media spreads information rapidly, make it suitable for sending fun moments. Social media is handy and highly relevant to our modern society. We will write a custom essay sample on Job Searching and Social Media or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The vast expanse of social media has both positive and negative impacts, but mostly positive. Employers and employees get to interact on LinkedIn while news media houses and individuals use Twitter to send and receive news and current information. Facebook is the most widely used social media as it is easy to use and has more users than the other platforms. Instagram, Snapchat, Pinterest, Google+ among others are examples of web 2.0 applications that have enabled users to stay in touch and share various categories of information. The fact that social media applications provide for feedback makes them effective through for instance, â€Å"like† buttons, comment and messaging options among others which provide a chance for greater interaction. However, many shortcomings are equally associated with the use of social media, ranging from wastage of time to compromising on privacy. Writing an argumentative essay on social media is easy and enjoyable but it requires a settled, prepared, and confident mind.Social media is way of expressing feelings for many teens and young adults. Many people consider social media an â€Å"outlet† to their mundane daily life.

Italian-American Traditions In Film Essays - Masculinity

Italian-American Traditions In Film Work Ethic A Bronx tale is a story of a father who tries to win back the love and pride of his son from a showy neighborhood mob boss. In my opinion this film is the best portrayal of work ethic. Lorenzo, played by Robert DeNiro, plays a father who tries to teach his son that discipline and hard work pay off from working, in the long. His son Calogero, played by Lillo Brancato, is exposed to the life of a mob boss Sonny, played by Chazz Palmenteri,, and doesnt understand why he should live a life of difficulty when he can have a life of luxury. He tries to explain to his son that the men in the community dont look up to him, but rather they fear him He also tries to make clear that its easy to do what he does, but try waking up every morning and working everyday, thats a real man. Throughout the film Sonny and Calogero develop a very close relationship. More than just a friendship, Calogero looks up to him as if he were a father figure. Sonny tells Calogero that he does not want him to do what he does, he does it because he has to; he has no other way out. He wants Calogero to finish school and make something of himself, and not to follow in his footsteps. Sonny feels like theres always someone out there out to get him and never feels safe. He doesnt want Calogero to have to go through the same thing. In the film Sonny murdered another person because of the fact that he took he took his parking spot. This haunting feeling he has throughout the film finally comes true in the final scene of the movie as the son of the father that was murdered earlier comes back for vengeance and kills Sonny. This action of revenge is another stereotype of Italian-American men. As the film ends Calogero is in the prime of his life so we do not know how his life continues. The viewer, in this case me, thinks that because of this dreadful ending Calogero will follow the advice of Sonny and his father to complete school and life his life like every other hard working individual in America, because as his father mentioned earlier hard work pays off in the end. Comparing and contrasting the use of food in two separate films The first film that shows the use of food in a film is in fatso. As the title implies the main character is a little overweight. He feels that food is the center of his life; everything he does revolves around food. The opening scene is the wake of his cousin that takes place in his home. In the next scene he goes to the kitchen and has himself some bread with sauce. This is a perfect example of when he is depressed he relies on food to cheer him up. Food has become an addiction for him, whenever things are not right he needs some food to make things better. The same way some other people run to alcohol to solve their problems. In the film he meets a girl and she changes his life drastically. He feels he has to impress her and look his best. In order to complete this task he must give up food entirely. Even though this seems impossible for a person in his position he has the discipline and will power to overcome this feat. The second film, entitled Big Night, is about two brothers who try and run a business together, specifically a restaurant. Since they are trying to run a restaurant, the food is the center of the film, without the food there is no restaurant. The older brother Primo, named so because he was the first son born, tries to make the food very traditional and tries to give the customer what he wants. The younger brother Secondo, named so because he was the second born, tries to think of it from a business perspective. He tries to explain to his brother that he has to give the customer what they want not what he (Secondo) wants.

To Kill a Mocking Bird - Calpurnia essays

To Kill a Mocking Bird - Calpurnia essays Choose a character out of the novel; describe the characters personality and placement in the novel. - How does this character relate to the Finch family? - How does the Finch family feel about this character? - Why do they respond to the character like this? Calpurnia is the black maid to the Finchs in Harper Lees novel To Kill A Mockingbird. She is treated by the Finchs as if she were a Finch as they see her as a member of their family. She is a friendly person whom is helpful and caring to the entire Finch family. Calpurnia is seen by the reader as almost being a white person, even though her skin is black and she comes from a black family and background. Calpurnia has spent all her days working for the Finchs and she does her work in a happy yet serious way. She is happy to care for and teach the Finchs as she feels they too care and teach her. It appears to the reader that Calpurnia almost lives a double life; a white family member whilst working and a black woman at her home. She is seen by the reader to be clever and well educated, a thing that most black people of that time were not. Calpurnia is also seen to be quite strict and firm with the children, even though she is in actual fact being loving and compassionate. Even though Calpurnia lives half her life as a white, she still attends black church and has a close bond with all the blacks in the community. There are many reasons Harper Lee chose to put Calpurnia in the novel and position her in the way she did. Harper Lee wanted the reader to see how Calpurnia interacted with both whites and blacks in a similar manner. By having Calpurnia as the Finchs maid, Harper Lee effectively shows the reader that the Finch family are completely un-racist, unlike many of Maycombs residents. Another reason why Harper Lee positioned Calpurnia as t ...

Marshall Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marshall Plan - Research Paper Example The WWII also produced the most radical change in international power structure in over 500 years. The ERP lasted for four years from the April of 1948. (WERNER, 2011, p402). America was responding to the problems and strife faced by the European nations, e.g. the rebuilding of devastated infrastructure by removing trade barriers hence modernizing industries and in the whole making Europe regain its prosperity once again. In the early stages the soviets were offered inclusion in the plan however they declined since they viewed acceptance of the offer would ultimately mean a US control over the soviet communism albeit a small degree(GILLON,2012, p18) Although Europe was aware that there were mixed motives behind the American aid plan, the European countries eagerly embraced the plan. On 12th July 1947 the following countries and others met in Paris to create the CEEC (committee of European Economic Cooperation), Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Greece, France, Ireland, Iceland, Luxemburg, Italy, among others (SULLIVAN, 1997, p16). At any one time there were 150 American ships plying the trade routes carrying the much needed commodities for factories to resume production. The factories were able to employ workers who in turn had the power to purchase goods, in a sense the European were given a new lease of life (MEE, 1984, p248). Between the years of 1948 – 1952, tons of fuel, food and finished products crossed the Atlantic to Europe. There was a rise in industrial production which reached the previous levels before the war by 1959.ERP was noted to have had the best impact in West Germany, here the foreign trade was doubled between the years 1949 & 1950and grew again by  ¾ the following year. Steel production grew from 2.5 million tons to 14.5 million tons, unemployment decreased to nearly zero and houses were built hence West Germany could support its growing

Organization Development Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Organization Development - Research Paper Example Effective solutions can be brought about through proper discussion mechanisms incorporated in such open discussion forums. Such organizational development frameworks must be effectively designed by the organizational managers to help in the development of the organizational people as a whole and not divided by class or groups (Murphy and Willmott, 2010, p.469). Similarly the organizational managers need to identify different stakeholders when issues of organizational diversity are to be discussed in the open forums held in the business organization. Herein the different stakeholders to the issue are to be identified based on diverse groups depending on parameters like race, gender, cultural variances, sexually oriented groups or also suffering from permanent or temporary disability and other old age organizational people. The issues relating to these diverse groups need to be discussed openly to help arrive at potent solutions. Similarly organizations embracing people along different nationalities also need to devise methods to help cover the linguistic barriers so as to help the regional people understand the organizational objectives effectively (Cummings and Worley, 2008, p.280). The paper in this connection endeavors to highlight on such organizational development models that would help address the issues emerging from incorporating diverse individuals or groups in the concern. It would present a thesis on the literatures pertaining to the same and reflect on some practical situations pertaining to business organizations incorporating diverse groups and mode of solving their problems. Literature Review Jones and Brazel (2006) identify a multicultural organization as that which incorporates a large amount of diversity in both its... This essay stresses that the organizations need to work along the social sphere to design several community programs to promote the development of the different regional and other underrepresented people in the concern. Organizational managers need to design several benefit programs focused on such regional and diverse minorities to help in their development and promotion in the concern. The business development managers need to design organizational development models to help the people thrive in an open atmosphere free from coercion and individual or group autonomy. In fact the organization should let the people perform in an environment filled with positive competition and thereby gain promotion based on performance and not undue influence. This paper makes a conclusion that organizations in order to thrive in the new millennium must focus on incorporating diversity both pertaining to the workplace and also in regards to the consumers. Incorporating people from diverse areas tends to reflect that such people can either belong to different racial and ethnic tribes or are disabled or also can be classified based on differences of gender, age and or religious backgrounds. The organizations tending to incorporate such people from diverse groups need to design their policies accordingly to help in the growth of the people both along their professional and personal lifestyles with that of the organization as a whole.

Imperial Rome Essay Example for Free

Imperial Rome Essay More than a thousand years ago, most of the civilized world was ruled by Rome, and the Roman Empires reach extended over hundreds of countries and cultures. It was one of the greatest empires that ever existed in the world. Its influence reached as far as Britain, Persia, and even Africa. During the life of the Empire, great achievements were conjured and its mark was immortalized in the annals of history. The Roman Empire built the foundation by which western civilization (as we know it today) was created. It produced many great and influential people, and as a super power, it was the keeper of order and stability in the tumultuous, early days of Rome. Laws and government systems that were conceptualized and enacted during this time stands as the basis for modern forms of governance, particularly that of democracy. Numerous modern languages can trace their roots from its lingua franca. While now a dead and dormant language, Latin is the language on which many etymologies are based. The empire has also given us Christianity, a religion that has significantly shaped world history and interconnected a myriad of cultures. This paper delves into the historical pieces, people, and events that make up Rome as a great empire, their influence, and how they affected the fate of the Empire and its people. The Twelve Tables as the basis for Roman Law The Twelve Tables, also known as Lex Duodecim Tabularum, were drafted in the mid-fifth century BC as the set of governing laws for the Roman Republic in its early days. Those times where ridden with great political and social struggles, so the drafting of laws that addressed their issues was a necessity. The legislation stood as the very foundation of Roman law. The Romans legal attitude and the mos maiorum, which are unwritten societal norms, conduct, or cultural tradition, are based on this system. By modern standards, some of its provisions can be considered barbaric, but it was by its principles that all Western legislation was later founded on. Though Romans realized that philosophy was not one of their strongest attributes, they took pride in their system of governance and legislation. The Tables established the basic principle of the legal code. This law, then, was solely based on interpretation, and the Tables, providing a concise resolution, transformed the legal system. A complete account of the Tables did not survive to modern times. What we have now are quotations and excepts from the original. Many were culled from the works of writers such as Cicero and Aulus Gellius. The Roman Conquest in the Punic Wars The Carthaginians, hailing from Phoenicia, were called â€Å"Poeni†, thus the term â€Å"Punic. † The Punic Wars were a series of wars fought between Rome and Carthage during the second and third century BC. There were three wars, the first one starting out because of a disintegration of the parties formerly good alliance. Before any rift could form, Rome and Carthage originally signed a treaty against a common enemy, Epirus. Territorial tensions and broken agreements eventually led to the first Punic War. Even though both sides did not originally have conflicting interests, the war lasted more than 20 years. In their final battle, the Romans scored a decisive victory. This set the direction of conquest that the Roman Empire took over the course of its history. Republic vs. Empire At first, a republic system suited Rome as a small city; the constitution and government was suited for its values and social structure. This Republic shaped the laws and systems by which Rome emerged as the worlds capital. However, as their might and influence began to grow, the people preferred the rule of an Emperor instead to that of the Republic, and one of the main conflicts in the Republic was brought about by class differences. Wealth was not equally distributed, and this caused a great social unrest to the lower classes. Cicero: One of Romes Most Influential Figures Cicero, also known as Marcus Tullius Cicero, is considered as the greatest Latin orator. His prose is considered prolific and is widely read, most of which deal with politics. In the ancient world, he is considered an influential philosopher. He lived in the time when the Roman Empire was starting to crumble, and being an actor, he took part in many performances depicting the political events of that period. Constantine and the Rise of Christianity in the Byzantine Era Constantine, also known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Augustus (to his troops), is one of the greatest rulers of the increasingly growing Roman Empire. He is famous for founding Constantinople (also Byzantium) as Romes new capital. One of his most influential acts is the Edict of Milan, a decree that legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. This earned him the title as the â€Å"First Christian Emperor,† and is considered as one of the most significant factors that facilitated the spread of Christianity in the whole world. The the Greek-speaking, Constantinople-based Roman Empire is commonly referred to as the Byzantine Empire (also the Eastern Roman Empire). The Byzantine Era was characterized by the rise of Christianity as the common faith (as opposed to paganism). Aside from the growing religious transformation, the direction towards Hellenization, or a transformation towards a culturally and philosophically Greek-oriented society, was also underway. Spartacus and Slave Revolt There were several major slave revolts during the Roman times, the most notable of which was that of Spartacus in 73-71 BC. This was considered as the greatest of all slave revolts in the Empires history, but modern historians have not reached a consensus as to Spartacus reasons for leading it. Spartacus was trained as a gladiator, and some theorize that he despised battling in an arena for Roman entertainment, thus his rebellion. He led revolts all over Italy, the center of the uprising being in Campania, in southern Italy . Thousands of slaves escaped from their masters to join him in his plight, and it took a kings army to put a stop to this. The Barbarians and the Fall of the Empire Historians have attributed the fall of the Roman Empire to the Barbarians, which were either of Germanic or British origins. During the third century, the empire experienced a great economic and political crises. Germanic tribes sacked the Western Empire, which they were not prepared to withstand. The constant barbarian assaults, civil unrest, and rising costs of living contributed to the Empires inevitable demise. Bibliography Baker, G. P. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Revolution 1930. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing. Cornell, T. (1995). The Beginnings of Rome: Italy from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (Circa 1,000 to 264 B. C. ). London: Routledge.

Smallpox Blankets during the French Indian War :: Smallpox Disease

A different perspective on a smallpox epidemic during the French and Indian War appears in Andrew J. Blackbird's History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. Blackbird, Chief Mack-e-te-be-nessy, was a member of a distinguished Ottawa family from the northwest shore of the Michigan lower peninsula. He wrote his History late in life, after a long career in education, politics, and public service. Blackbird's book, like many similar autoethnographic texts, is a combination of autobiography, history, ethnography, and polemic. He opens with a conventional reference to inaccuracy in current histories. In the course of correcting the record he relates the story, preserved by elders of his nation, of a smallpox epidemic during the height of the French and Indian War, about 1757. Blackbird's story is unique because of the unusual disease vector. It was a notable fact that by this time [1763] the Ottawas were greatly reduced in numbers from what they were in former times, on account of the small-pox which they brought from Montreal during the French war with Great Britain. This small pox was sold to them shut up in a tin box, with the strict injunction not to open the box on their way homeward, but only when they should reach their country; and that this box contained something that would do them great good, and their people! The foolish people believed really there was something in the box supernatural, that would do them great good. Accordingly, after they reached home they opened the box; but behold there was another tin box inside, smaller. They took it out and opened the second box, and behold, still there was another box inside of the second box, smaller yet. So they kept on this way till they came to a very small box, which was not more than an inch long; and when they opened the last one they found nothing but mouldy particles in this last little box! They wondered very much what it was, and a great many closely inspected to try to find out what it meant. But alas, alas! pretty soon burst out a terrible sickness among them. The great Indian doctors themselves were taken sick and died. The tradition says it was indeed awful and terrible. Every one taken with it was sure to die.

The Role Of Audit Committees And Corporate Governance Accounting Essay

In order to better corporate administration, accounting organic structures, market regulators and committees has recommended the preparation of audit commissions. In 2001, after the creative activity of Douala stock exchange ( DSX ) , the Cameroon capital market authorization requested all listed companies to set up audit commissions. This survey focuses on the function of audit commissions and corporate administration in Cameroon listed companies.Particularly, how audit commissions operates in a developing economic system like Cameroon and how these patterns can be compared with those in the western economic systems every bit good as other emerging economic systems, the relationship of audit commissions with direction, internal and external hearers.The major accomplishments and challenges confronting audit commissions. This survey revealed that AC in Cameroon are challenged with unequal human resource capacity, the intervention of the authorities and kiping stockholders every bit good the fast changing legal and runing environment. However, there has been a singular betterment on the dependability of fiscal describing therefore vouching investor ‘s assurance. Key words ; Audit commissions, corporate administration, Cameroon, listed companies, direction, internal hearer, external hearer, OHADA ( organisation for harmonisation of concern jurisprudence in Africa ) , CMA ( capital market authorization ) , Decision devising.Table of ContentDeclaration Recognition List of Figures List of Abbreviations List of Tables AbstractionChapter 1 Introduction1.1 Introduction 1.2 Background 1.3 Motivation 1.4 The survey nonsubjective and Questions 1.5 The survey range 1.6 The restrictions .7 The survey constructionChapter 2 Conceptual model2.0 -IntroductionSection A ; Corporate Administration2.1- The Definitions of Corporate Governance 2.2- The Background of Corporate Governance 2.3- Corporate Governance Code 2.4 Corporate Administration mechanism 2.5 Corporate administration Environment 2.6 The Development of the construct of Corporate GovernanceSection B ; Audit Committee2.7 The Operationss of Audit Committees 2.7.1- The Charter 2.7.2 Composition of the commission 2.7.3 -Qualification and Experience 2.7.4- Meetings and Reports 2.8-The Relationship between Audit Committees, the direction, internal hearers and external hearers 2.9 The major Accomplishments and Challenges confronting Audit Committees. 2.10- Conclusion.Chapter 3 Theoretical Frameworks for Corporate administration and Audited accountCommittees3.1 debut 3.2 The Agency theory 3.3 Evidence on struggle of involvement between stockholders and directors 3.3.1 Conflict over Compensation 3.3.2 Conflict on variegation and wealth reduction investing 3.3 the Stewardship theory 3.3.1 Summary of the theoriesChapter 44.1 Corporate Governance issues in developing states. ( Cameroon ) 4.2 The legal and Regulatory model for Corporate administration of listed companies in Cameroon. 4.2.1The Role of Douala stock exchange ( DSX ) 4..2.2- The Board of Directors 4..2.3 The Audit Committee 4.2.4- The Stockholders 4. 2.5.The Role of the Governance 4.3- The Actors of Corporate Governance ; Stockholders and Directors Chapter 5 Research Methodology 5.1 debut 5.2 Questionnaire study 5.3 Administration of Questionnaires study 5.4 Responses of the questionnaire study 5.5 Interview Survey 5.5 Administration of interview studyChapter 66-Findings and Discussion 6.1- Operation of Audit Committees 6.2- Relationship of Audit commissions with direction, internal and external hearers 6.3- Accomplishments and ChallengesChapter 7, Conclusion, Refrences and AppendixChapter 1 Introduction1.1-IntroductionIn the past two decennaries, there has been turning attendings on corporate administration notably after the corporate prostration of high net income companies in the universe like the Enron and WorldCom. Corporate administration is now a first order issue largely in economic systems where companies are run by commanding stockholders ( Albuquerue and Wang, 2008 ) and a big figure of companies are seeking to follow better corporate administration patterns ( Garay and Gonzalez, 2008 ) .Traditionally, corporate administration is regarded as a mean by which companies safeguard the public assistance of its moneymans such as its investors, creditors and loaners. Today, with the current recession and planetary fiscal hurt, issue of corporate administration patterns in companies and the functions of different commissions are been studied. Audit commission is going the most widely used mechanism to guarantee good corporate administration in companies ( Chen et al, 2008 ) .The audit commission is an operating commission of the company ‘s board of managers that have some inadvertence duties such as the fiscal coverage, fiscal revelation, external hearers, internal auditing every bit good as control. A good figure corporate administration surveies has being carried out in developed states of Europe, United provinces of America and Japan ( Joshi and wakil,2004 ) .Very few surveies has being carried out and completed in less developed countries.Tsamenyi, Enninful-Adu and Onumah ( 2007 ) observes that corporate administration surveies in less develop states are limited and are available merely on single state footing. This survey tries to bridge the spread in anterior survey by adding more in our apprehension of the operations of audit commission and the major accomplishments of audit commissions in Cameroon. Furthermore, old research in developing states did non addressed the issue on how audit commissions relate with the direction, internal hearers and external hearers.In this survey, we seek to make full in this spread by look intoing on how audit commissions in Cameroon listed companies relate with the direction, internal hearers and external hearers1.2 BackgroundJensen and Meckling ( 1976 ) defined bureau relationship as a contract under which one or more individuals ( principals ) engages another ( agent ) to exert a service on their behalf. Directors or agents are being delegated the daily determination devising by stockholders. Directors are hence charged with the duties of utilizing and commanding the house ‘s economic resources.However the directors may non move ever to the stockho lders best involvement due to inauspicious choice and moral jeopardy ( Anthony and Govindarajan,2007 ; 531 ) . Therefore, stockholders has to supervise directors activities in order to guarantee that they live up to the commissariats of their contracts ( Goddard and Masters,2000 ) To avoid direction failures, Moldddoveanu and Martin ( 2001 ) argued that stockholders must ordain confirmation, monitoring every bit good as countenance ( wages and penalty ) mechanisms. Moldoveanu and Martin ( 2001 ) defined confirmation mechanisms as the tools used in formalizing the determinations of the agent, in giving concluding veto for an enterprise, directive or the action program of the agent. Monitoring mechanisms ( both ongoing and separate monitoring ) are use to detect, record and to mensurate the end product of the agent ‘s attempts. Furthermore, approving mechanism give selective wagess / or penalties to agents for/ or for non alining their attempts with stockholders aims or stockholders involvement. A good figure of corporate administration surveies has being carried out in developed states of Europe, United provinces of America and Japan ( Joshi and wakil,2004 ) .Very few surveies has being carried out and completed in less developed states.Tsamenyi, Enninful-Adu and Onumah ( 2007 ) observes that corporate administration surveies in less develop states are limited and are available merely on single state footing.1.3 MotivationProper corporate administration is a really imperative mechanism to reconstruct investor ‘s assurance, to enlarge the private sector, and to excite economic growing. It have been predicted that â€Å" good administration of companies will shortly go as important to the universe economic system as proper administration of single states. † Some people may see this as excessively early to hold, but this anticipation was suggested with grounds, if non evidently true today, so, is really likely to be true in the hereafter. The planetary recognition of the impact of events sing corporate societal irresponsibleness ‘s such as the fiscal crises in Asia, the corporate dirts in the universe high net income companies like Enron and WorldCom and the fiscal crisis in most African states in the last decennary.All these cases negatively affected the public assistance and the lives of many such as the employees, the pensionaries, house ‘s creditors and loaners. These raised the pressing demand for effectual and efficient ordinance of corporations and besides led to fear in market places, and a lessening in stock monetary values. In most underdeveloped states, like in Africa, the acknowledgment of lost chances to mobilise fiscal resources in domestic and international capital markets via good corporate administration took the involvement of most African Heads of State. This so inspired the African Heads of State to include good corporate administration as one of the four chief thematic countries subjected to reexamine under t he African Peer Review Mechanism ( the APRM ) .The four selected countries include, political administration and democracy, economic administration and direction, socio-economic development, and good corporate administration. The demand to closely supervise the operations of corporations can be justified by the undermentioned two grounds ; -The increasing involvement of the investors in developing states to put in listed companies. -The Potential additions or losingss that hinge on good direction of corporations can be financially profitable or economically annihilating1.4 Research aim and QuestionsThe research aim is to add more in the apprehension of the operations of audit commissions in footings of their composing, rank, independency, meeting and coverage, charter guideline every bit good as the accomplishments and challenges. The research besides aims at analyzing the relationship between audit commissions with the direction, internal hearer and external hearers. Finally we will compare our findings with those in western and other emerging states. To accomplish these purposes, the research worker seek to beg the sentiments of four bunchs of respondents in the three listed companies in DSX ( SEMC, SOCAPALM, and SAFACAM ) . ( I ) the presidents of audit commissions, ( two ) the company secretaries, ( three ) the finance caputs ; and ( four ) the external hearers of all the companies listed in the Douala Stoc k Exchange ( DSX ) . The undermentioned research inquiries will be address ; a ) How the audit commission operates in less states like Cameroon and how these patterns are compared with those in developed states B ) How audit commissions relate with direction, internal hearers and external hearers degree Celsius ) What are the chief accomplishments and challenges confronting audit commissions1.5 The survey rangeThe range of this survey is to analyze the function of audit commissions and corporate administration in developing states peculiarly in companies listed in the Douala stock exchange ( DSX ) Cameroon.The analyses will focus on on the operations of audit commissions in listed companies in DSX by looking at their manner of choice, composing, frequence of the commission meeting, coverage, making and experience, the accomplishments and challenges confronting audit commission. The old research in developing states did non addressed the point on how audit commission relate with the direction, internal hearer and external auditor.In this survey, the research worker seek to make full in this spread by look intoing how audit commissions in listed companies in Cameroon relate with the direction, internal and external hearers1.6 Restrictions.It is imperative for the research worker and the users of this research to be qui vive of the pertinent restrictions as they try to progress and understand the consequences of this survey ( Anderson and Poole, 2001 ) . We should acknowledge that the method of questionnaire study is entitled to built-in restrictions. Harmonizing to Matthews ( 2002 ) all studies are entitled to some built-in failings as some respondents give responses which they believe are expected of them, or which portray themselves and the organisation in the best visible radiation. This can be the instance of the responses of the participants in this surv ey which included AC presidents, company secretaries and finance caputs. They may hold overstated their appraisal of the AC patterns as this was seen to be more of import than the other group of the participants ( external hearers ) . Besides, it can be probably that the questionnaires were non clear, this causes respondents to construe some inquiries otherwise or on their ain manner. This survey was besides limited by the fact that the interview study sample size was excessively little ( merely 5respondents opted ) as carry oning more interviews would hold guaranteed a broader apprehension of the research issue, nevertheless the interview study was merely to complement the questionnaire study to acquire a deeper penetration of the findings1.7 The survey constructionThis paper will be made up of seven chapters, chapter one introduces the subject of corporate administration and audit commissions, it besides give the first apprehension of the thesis background, motive, research aims, research inquiries and the restrictions. chapter two which is conceptual model is in two subdivisions. Section one will be based on corporate administration definitions, its background, corporate administration codifications, mechanism, corporate administration environment and in conclusion the development of the construct of corporate administration. Section two of this chapter will establish foremost on the operations of audit commissions ( maps ) , subsequently focuses on the charter, composing which has to make with the inquiry of independency ( Joshi and Wakil,2004 ) , the factor of fiscal accomplishments as a requirement for audit commissions member is besides examined every bit good as audit commission meetings and studies.Blue Ribbon commission ( 1999 ) ) gave recommendation that audit commissions members must be financially literate. Second, this subdivision will speak about the relationship of the audit commissions with direction, internal hearers and external hearers. Last, this subdivision will speak about some of the major accomplishments and challenges confronting audit commissions. Chapter three will seek to analyse some theoretical models like the bureau theory and stewards theory. And so look at the some of the bureau jobs between directors and stockholders. This chapter will in conclusion give a belief sum-up of the two theories ( bureau and stewardship theory ) In chapter four, the research worker will speak about corporate administration issues in developing states ( Cameroon ) , the legal and regulative model of corporate administration in listed companies in the Douala stock Exchange ( Cameroon ) concentrating on the function of the Douala stock exchange, the authorities of Cameroon, the board of managers, stockholders and audit commission, This chapter will look in conclusion at the histrions of corporate administration which involves the stockholders and directors. Chapter five which is research methodological analysis, the research worker will establish his research method on questionnaire and interview study turn toing the survey objectives.This questionnaires will be based on the operations of audit commissions, composing, independency, fiscal literacy, relationship, self-evaluation every bit good as the major accomplishments and challenges.they will largely be â€Å" true or false † type inquiries while others will ask the respondents to rate the commissions achievement with a mark of 4 ( to a greater extend ) to a mark of 1 ( non at all ) Chapter six will concentrate on the findings and treatments sing the research consequences. The findings and treatments will focus on on the operations of audit commissions, the relationship with direction, internal and external hearers every bit good as the accomplishments and challenges. Figure 1.thesis lineation.Chapter 2 Conceptual Frameworks2.0-IntroductionScandals, Frauds, every bit good as corporate failures has increase the demand for reforms and better ordinances more particularly in the Fieldss of corporate administration. In the early 1990s, in united land, a good figure of issues like the prostration of Maxwell concern imperium, leaded to the stimulation of treatments and statements refering the constructions for commanding executive power ( power2002 ) .In December 1992, a codification of best patterns was published ( the Cadbury codification ) .this codification gave recommendations to companies to organize audit commissions consisting of independent non-executive managers ( power2002 ) In United provinces of America, the addition figure of net incomes restatements in public traded companies, together with the fiscal statement fraud allegations every bit good as deficiency of responsible corporate administration in extremely profitable companies like Enron, Global crossing, World com In USA, Leisurenet in south Africa have sharpened the increasing attending in corporate administration every bit good as audit commissions in peculiar. The diminution of these companies raised much concerns sing the deficiency of argus-eyed inadvertence by boards of managers and audit commissions in fiscal coverage procedure scrutinizing maps ( Rezace et al,2003 ) .George W Bush, USA president in the province of the brotherhood reference, mentioned the gravitation of this job by saying that â€Å" Through stricter accounting standard and tougher revelation demands. Corporate America must be made accountable to employees and stockholders and held to the highest criterion of behavior ( B ush,29th January 2002 ) † .In USA a good figure of committees, ordinances and audit commissions has been formed to turn to corporate administration issues in USA. some of these include Tread manner committee ( 1987 ) , the Blue Ribbon commission ( 1999 ) .Further more, the 2002 sarbanes-oxely act was signed in to jurisprudence and one of its chief proviso were that all listed companies set up audit commissions ( Joshi and wakil,2004 ) Rezace, Olibe and Minmier ( 2003 ) stated that good corporate administration promote relationships of answerability between primary corporate participants and this will travel a long manner to heighten corporate public presentation as direction holds answerability to the board and the board is held accountable to the stockholders. One of the board chief map is to guarantee quality accounting policies, internal controls every bit good as independency. This will cut down fraud and fiscal hazard are anticipated every bit good as advancing accurate, high quality and timely revelation of fiscal and other information to the stockholders. CMA ( 2002 ) defined corporate administration as the procedure and the construction used to direct and pull off concern personal businesss of the company towards heightening prosperity and corporate answerability with ultimate aim of recognizing stockholders long-run value while taking in to account the involvement of other stakeholders. In Cameroon, corporate administration issues has been taken really serious.the Cameroon capital market authorization ( DSX ) in concurrence with commonwealth association for corporate administration has produce a sample codification for best patterns in corporate administration in June 2001.One of the cardinal recommendations in the Douala stock exchange ( DSX ) ( 2001 ) is that all listed companies establishes audit commissions consisting of independent non-executive managers which has to maintain under reappraisal the range and consequences of audit, their effectivity, independency and hearers objectivenesss. The codification further stated that separate audit commissions enables the board in deputing to the sub-committee the duty for thorough and item reappraisal of the audit affairs, besides to enables non-executive managers in lending independent judgement and have a positive function to play in an country in which they are peculiarly fitted and offer the hearers a direct nexus with non-executive managers ( CMA,2002 ) In south Africa, mangema and chamisa ( 2008 ) found out that the likeliness of a house to be suspended from the stock exchange is higher in houses without audit commission. This therefore suggest the importance and the necessity of audit commissions in Africa. This chapter will be divided in to two subdivisions. Section A will concentrate on conceptual model for corporate administration while subdivision B will concentrate on conceptual model for audit commissions.Section A. Corporate Administration2.1 The Definitions of Corporate GovernanceStates are different from one another in footings of engineering, civilization, political system, economic and historical development ( Roman,2001 ) .There differences make the definition of corporate administration to change from state to state therefore doing it really hard to came out with a universally acceptable definition of corporate administration. Shleifer and Vishny ( 1997 ) defined corporate administration while looking at the ways in which the providers of fundss to the steadfast assures themselves of good return for their investing. However this definition merely laid more accent on the providers of fundss, it fails to acknowledge the relationship that exist between the house ‘s directors and stakeholders since every house has many stakeholders with different involvements that must be taken attention of by the house. It is in this respect that corporate administration is besides looked upon as a corporate group of people united as one individual who has the power or authorization to command an organisation ( Ruin,2001 ) Australian criterion ( 2003 ) defined corporate administration as a pattern in which companies are controlled, directed and held to account. Harmonizing to Australian criterion ( 2003 ) corporate administration therefore comprises of power, answerability, leading, stewardship way every bit good as control. This definition takes in to consideration the demand of cheques and balances in organisation direction procedure, therefore it can be regarded as more comprehensive ( Gregory,2000 ) .The Australian criterion definition is besides similar to other definitions like that given by audit committee ( 2009 ) which emphasis the importance of answerability and control in organisational administration. The presence of many different definitions for corporate administration shows that every writer formulates a definition that suit his or her subject. ( Deunb and neubeuer,1992 ) .For case, harmonizing to Turnbull ( 1997 ) corporate administration influences all houses activities that produces good and or services, harmonizing to Colley et Al ( 2004 ) corporate administration is the act of regulating whereas Cadbury ( 2000 ) specify corporate administration harmonizing to the system by which the house is directed and controlled. However Wallace and Zinkin ( 2005 ) pointed out clearly that the term good corporate administration is really easy to give voice but hard to understand and appreciate.2.2 – The Background of Corporate GovernanceThe construct of corporate administration is been used both in economic sciences and in jurisprudence, and it is understood to intend enforcement of contract, protection of belongings right every bit good as corporate action ( McNutt,2010 ) , onc e and for all, corporate administration is associated with people runing within the organisation, nevertheless the organisation has to be decently governed in order to accomplish their set aims. This construct of corporate administration became more normally used and spoken in 1980s ( parker,1996 ) nevertheless it originated in 19th century when incorporation was advocated for as a agency of restricting liability ( fletcher,1996.vinten,2001 ) .The creative activity of registered companies is being perceived as the existent starting point for the treatment on corporate administration ( Adams,2002 ) .This enrollment of companies was supported by the joint stock companies act of 1844 ( Uk ) .The silver demand of modern corporation lead to the separation of control map from ownership ( Berles and means,1967 ) .With this separation, house ‘s proprietors no longer exert control over the house ‘s action because it was seen as a function of professional directors or agent ( kiel and Nicholson,2003 ) .This so propose the demand of corporate administration to protect house ‘s proprietors from the actions of directors.In respond to this demand, the limited liability a ct 1855 ( UK ) was created to protect stockholders from debts above their parts Francis ( 2000 ) argued that the demand for corporate administration patterns became more pronounce in 1980s.This was because during this period, several parts of the universe were sing stock market clangs every bit good as corporate failures in some cooperation due to hapless administration. Harmonizing to united nation,1999 ) corporate prostration was the cardinal driver for alteration to corporate administration codifications. In 1980, as more and more corporate entities continue to fall in in assorted parts of the universe, there were alteration of attitude with greater public presentation outlooks on the house ‘s direction board.It was besides realized here that the house has to be run by the director whereas the board ensures that the house is being run efficaciously ( Adams,2002 ) . The acceptance of the thought of corporate administration can besides be supported on a positive note. There was a turning recognitions that improve corporate administration is indispensable for growing and the development of the state ‘s economic system ( Carkr,2004, Department of Treasury,1997 ) .A survey that was carried out in United States of America by Gompers, Ishii and Metricck,2003 ) reveals that there is a strong correlativity ship between good corporate administration patterns and stockholders public presentation. This survey further reveals that over 60 % of investors were prepared to pay pore on portion of companies with good corporate administration patterns.2.3 Corporate Administration Code ( CGC )In most states, the best mechanism to heighten choice corporate administration reforms is through the execution of corporate administration codification to supplement the already bing concern Torahs. Corporate administration codification can be defined as paperss which stipulate the regulations and processs for regulating and pull offing organisations ( Dabor and Adeyemi, 2009 ; Ugoji and Isele, 2009: Scott, 2007 ; Classeens and Bruno, 2007 ) .While corporate administration involves the procedure by which organisations are governed and controlled with the purpose of adding stockholders values every bit good as meeting stakeholders outlook ( CBN, 2006 ; Iyang, 2009 ) , corporate administration codifications on its portion, flatly stipulates the regulations, rules and the best patterns for pull offing and regulating organisation ‘s efficaciously ( Okhealam and Akinboade, 2003 ; Amstrong, 2003 ; Gatamah, 2008, Andreason, 2009 ) . Most of these codifications are implemented by self-professional regulation bureaus but under the supervising of authorities regulative organic structures. However, the duty for companies to follow and implement these codifications depends on the company ‘s board of managers ( Elebute, 2000 ; Iyang, 2009 ; Sanusi , 2003 ; Soludo, 2004 ) .Therefore, the chief duties of the board of managers are to vouch choice administration public presentation, add stockholders values, preserve the involvement of stakeholders, protect the environment and warrant precise fiscal coverage ( Alo, 2003, WILSO? 2006.dabor and Adeyemi, 2009 ; Roe 2003 ; Ahmed 2007 ; Olusa, 2007 ; Elebute, 2000 ; Iyang 2009 ; Sanusi 2003 ; Soludo, 2004 )2.4 Corporate Administration MechanismCorporate administration mechanism involves the procedures through which a state ‘s concern Torahs and corporate administration codifications are been imposed. ( Reed, 2002 ) .Corporate administration mechanism consist of agencies to supervise, nevertheless the effectivity of the corporate administration mechanism lies on the regulative models and public administration strategy in each state. ( Wilson, 2006 ; Dabor and Adeyemi,2009 ; Ro, 2003, Ahmed, 2007 ; Olusa,2007 ) .the best enact of corporate administration codification is achieve thr ough modulating professional organic structures in confederation with the authorities modulating bureaus and with the stock market governments ( Vintem, 2002, Reed, 2002 ; Wilson,2006 ; oe, 2003 ) The premise or the thought that, the presence of many corporate administration mechanisms will frequently allow to good corporate administration has been proven incorrect by the high degree of corruptness, fraud and dirts in Cameroon and in other parts of the universe. The credence of corporate administration codification by most companies in the private sector is merely a conformity and non an indicant that the companies will oblige themselves to good ethical concern patterns ( Rossouw, 2005 ; Gatamah, 2008 ; Iyang,2009 ) .In Cameroon, over 70 % of the companies listed in the Douala stock exchange have a adopted the corporate administration codification but there are still incidences of frauds, embellzement, deficiency of answerability and unity.2.5 Corporate Governance EnvironmentHarmonizing to Li and Nair, ( 2009 ) , corporate administration environment takes in to consideration the consequence of factors like the state ‘s political system, the economic stableness and socio- cultural factors that can heighten good administration or prevent unethical concern operations ( Li and Nair,2009 ) .Therefore corporate administration environment embodies the state ‘s political, economic, technological, societal and legal systems that affect ethical concern patterns in corporations ( Amaeshi and Amao, 2008 ; Wilson, 20006 ) .Corporate administration so serves as a barometer to mensurate the company ‘s overall public presentation, their strategic pick, determinations and actions. Though the political, economic and socio-cultural consequences of the freshly formed corporate administration codifications in Cameroon are still under probe, the codifications are created or formed to safeguard companies against sick duties like corruptness, environmental maltreatment, and companies misdirection ( Gatamah, 2008 ; Andreason, 2009 ) .2.6- The Development of the Concept of Corporate GovernanceDue to cultural, political, economic and technological differences betw een states, the thought of corporate administration was adopted but with major fluctuations, as a consequent, a assortment of corporate administration model was established. However two major attacks of corporate administration patterns is identified with fluctuation originating merely on the different legal systems at work in assorted states Harmonizing to Solomon and Solomon, ( 2004 ) , Department of Treasury ( ,1997 ) ; states that patterns common jurisprudence like united provinces of America, united land, Canada, and Australia develop a type of corporate administration construction which focuses on stockholder ‘s involvement ( return ) .In this respect, corporate administration has to guarantee that the company achieves the aims set by the stockholders. This type of corporate is is known as foreigner theoretical account of control as it recognizes the spread between the troughs of a house and its proprietors ( Department of Treasury,1997 ) . On the contrary, states with civil jurisprudence such as Germany, France, and Netherlands develop their corporate administration which focuses on stakeholders. In this respects, corporate administration has to equilibrate the involvement of cardinal groups like the employees, directors, creditors and clients ( Solomon and Solomon,2004 ) .This attack is called insider theoretical account of control since it recognizes that the greater control in the house is held by those closer to its existent working ( Department of Treasury,1997 ) However the two attacks have some similarities. For case, they both opted for the fact that the direction boards of the house were to be elected by the house ‘s stockholders to put policies and so depute to the direction the full authorization to pull off the house ( Hilmer,1998 ) .Anyway, it was realized that most states adopted a system of corporate administration with the mixture of the two extremes ( Solomon and Solomon,2004 ) Nowourdays, corporate administration is an international issue because of concern globalistion.3It is seen to play a major function in the direction of companies in both developed and less developed states. However, Davis and schlitzer ( 2008 ) pointed out that corporate administration patterns are non unvarying across states, that each state tend to follow corporate administration processs based on factors like the state legal system, the fiscal system of the state, the state cultural and economic state of affairs and the corporate ownership construction of the state ( the organisation for economic cooperation and development,1998 ) .Section B: Audit Committee2.7-The Operationss of audit commissionsThe audit commissions has as it premier map to help the board in carry throughing its inadvertence duties. By so making, they review the fiscal information that has to be provided to the stockholders, other stakeholders and to the system of internal controls that has been established by t he boards of managers and the direction ( Bean, 1999 ) Bean ( 1999 ) pointed out some of the general duties of audit commissions: -The audit commission has to supply an unfastened ambiance for communicating between internal hearer, independency hearers and the board of managers. -They have to describe actions to the BODs and do some recommendations -The commission have the power to transport out or authorise probes in affairs within the commission ‘s range of responsility.The audit commission has to retain an independent advocate and comptroller if needed to help in an probe2.7.1- The charterIn developing states, audit commission ‘s faces a batch of troubles in transporting out their maps because of deficit in accounting accomplishments ( waweru, Hoque and Uliana, 2004 ) . A batch of writers have undertaken surveies on the inadvertence duties of audit commissions.Most of these surveies reveals that there is a broad fluctuations in sensed and declared duties.According to Kalblers and Fogarty ( 1993 ) survey, the duties of audit commission include inadvertence of fiscal coverage, internal controls and external hearer. Peter coopers and Lybrand ( 1995 ) and Dezoort, Hermanson, Archambeault and Reed ( 2002 ) in their survey found out that the duties of audit commissions revolved chiefly in countries of fiscal coverage, scrutinizing and overall corporate administration. It has being argued by Guy and Burke ( 2001 ) that all companies with audit commissions must develop a seamster made charter that describes the commissions composing and specifies entree to allow resources. The charter has to be approved by the board which so serves as a usher to the commission in transporting out the assorted duties delegated to them by the full board of managers.According to Bean ( 1999 ) , comprehensive charter enhances effectual public presentation of the audit commission, serves as a roadmap for members of the commissions by doing a clear definition of the duties and supply a systematic treatment construction among the commission and the direction every bit good as public comptroller ( Bean,1994 ) . A charter helps scrutinize commissions members to concentrate on their specified duties and besides the charter enable or assist stockholders in measuring the function and duties of audit commissions ( KPMG,1999 ) . In Cameroon, audit commissions authorization is got ten from capital market act which requires that some authorization has to be delegated to the audit commission by the board.2.7.2- The composingHarmonizing to Joshi and Wakil ( 2004 ) , one of import variable of composing of the audit commission is the inquiry of independency ( joshi and wakil, 2004 ) . Br aiotta ( 1999 ) pointed out that the effectivity of an audit commission depends on the background of the commission ‘s members which have to dwell of both fiscal and non fiscal skilled people ( Braiotta,1999 ) . The success or failure of the commission ‘s operation relies on the president, hence great attention has to be taken when taking the president ( Braiotta,1999 ) .According to Braiotta ( 1999 ) , the figure of audit commission member depends on the duties and authorization of the commission and besides on the size of the board and the company. The figure of the members vary from one state to another ( Braiotta,1999 ) There are turning statements on whether the commission members should be independent as advocated by Bean ( 1999 ) , the Blue Ribbon ( 1999 ) every bit good as it was adopted in Cameroon by the Capital Market Act in 2001 ( Hussein,2003 ) or should it depend on the environing fortunes of a peculiar company ( Attwood,1986 ) .According to Bean ( 1999 ) , an independent manager is one who is free from any relationship that can act upon his or her judgement as a member of the audit commissions ( Bean,1999 ) .However this is hard to find ( Pomeranz,1997 ) In Cameroon, the issue of independency of most managers is been affected by that fact they serves as managers in more than one listed company. This is as a consequence of deficit in skilled human resources capacity in Cameroon and besides due to the fact that most listed companies in Cameroon are little in size therefore doing it hard to pull people with qualified accomplishments.2.7.3-The Qualification and Experience.There are different point of views on the demand of fiscal literacy as a making for audit commission members. The Blue Ribbon commission ( 1999 ) recommended that all audit commission members has to be financially literate. Harmonizing to Rezaee et Al ( 2003 ) , fiscal literate is define as the ability to read and understand fiscal statement. However Herdman ( 2002 ) questioned the issue of whether the demand about fiscal literacy of audit commission members by the capital markets went far plenty. On the contrary, Jonathan and Carey ( 2001 ) argue on whether in a univer se of of all time more complicated accounting criterion, where even to the full trained comptroller can fight to understand, if this is a realistic and a necessary demand as a member of the audit commission ( Jonathan and Carey,2001 ) . In USA, surveies were carried out in countries of experience and expertness. The United states General Accounting Office ( GAO ) ( 1991 ) found out that over half of the 40surveyed audit commission chairs from big US Bankss reveals that their audit commissions were runing with no members with expertness in accounting, scrutinizing and jurisprudence inadvertence ( GAO,1991 ) .2.7.4- Meeting and ReportsHarmonizing to Guy and Burke ( 2001 ) , audit commissions have to schedule meetings two to four times per twelvemonth depending on their range of activities and the company size. Graziana ( 2004 ) argued on the point that audit commission has to run into more often, both officially and informally.Formal meeting has to be held a least 4 times and sometimes up to 12 times per twelvemonth, this 4 meetings are in individual and last for about 4 hours. ( Graziana,2004 ) .These meetings must include the senior direction, external hearer and the internal hearer ( Graziana,2004 ) .Furthermore, t he board has to depute the authorization ot the audit commission to keep particular meetings as needed ( Guy and Burke,2001 ) . Some surveies have being carried out on the frequences of audit commission meetings.Menon and Williams ( 1994 ) made a research on 200 companies and found out that the figure of audit commission meeting was increasing as the figure of outside managers increased ( menon and Williams,1994 ) .Studies have shown that meeting frequence is positively related to the company ‘s size, monitoring and the demand of audit commission meeetings. Price WaterHouse Cooper ( 1999 ) saw that audit commissions in European companies meet averagely 3 to 4 times per twelvemonth. The audit commission ‘s study has to be addressed to the BODs and must include their findings and recommendations sing the effectivity of the maps of internal and external hearers and other countries within the commission ‘s legal power as stated in the charter. Besides, the study has to establish on the engagement of the members in audit panning procedure and their monitoring activities ( Braiotta,1999 ) .2.8-The Relationship with Management, Internal hearer and External hearer.Harmonizing to Blue Ribbon commission ( 1999 ) , a company can merely accomplish quality fiscal coverage when there is an unfastened and blunt communicating every bit good as a co-working relationship between the board of managers, audit commissions, the direction, internal and external hearers. It has being argued Rezaee et Al ( 2003 ) that the most effectual attack is for the audit commission to work in coaction with the direction and the hearers to enable them place complex activities of the co mpany, identify and asses the comparative hazards, find the accounting intervention and besides to acquire a complete apprehension of their impact on free and just presentation of fiscal public presentation in order to cut down deceitful activities ( Rezaee et al,2003 ) .Members of the audit commissions have to be sufficiently knowing to inquire tough inquiries to the direction every bit good as the internal and external hearers sing the study quality, transparence and the dependability of the studies. However, in developing states like Cameroon, most of the listed companies are institutionally owned and these establishments are owned by the authorities, as a consequent, some members serves in the board due to their virtue place in the authorities and non because of their making or experiences. Braiotta ( 1999 ) stated that the audit commission has to be independent from CEO, nevertheless the CEO holds the best information beginning related to the concern and they guarantee speedy respond to the petition of the audit commission, therefore doing the relationship with the CEO the key. ( Braiotta,1999 ) . The BODs has the duty of reexamining the overall effectivity of internal controls system but in world, the board can depute this duty to the audit commission ( Zaman,2001 ) .The board so has to make up one's mind on the function of audit commission in the reviewing procedure, the function of audit commission in the reappraisal procedure besides depends on factors like the size, the board composing and the nature of the company ‘s chief hazards ( Zaman,2001 ) . Harmonizing to Braiotta ( 1999 ) , it is necessary and of import for the audit commission and the hearers to set up a good working relationship that is non counterproductive ( Braiotta,1999 ) .There is a co-relationship between the plants of the audit commissions and independent hearers because they both have common fiscal aims. Following the Sarbabes-Oxley Act in the United States, it is legal for the hearers to describe to the direction. The audit commission has to O.K. all services both audit and non-audit, they get all new accounting and scrutinizing information from the hearers and they besides serve as an o official communicating line between the company and the hearers ( Tackett,2004 ) .The fact that the audit commissions are given the authorization in doing determinations about hiring and firing the hearers, has removes from the direction the ability of endangering the hearer with dismissal if the hearers fails to execute to the direction best involvement, moreover, the audit commission are required to do blessing to all payments made to hearers for their services like scrutinizing therefore doing it hard for direction ot bargain unneeded services from hearers with the hope that the hearers will give them some favourable interventions, in conclusion, the fact audit commissions are required to cover with any dissension between the direction and the hearers, makes it hard for direction to look in questionable accounting patterns. Knapp ( 1987 ) made a surveyed on 179 audit commissions members and found out that, when there is audit difference, the audit commission tend to back up the hearers and non the direction.2.9- The Major Accomplishments and Challenges confronting audit commissionsSeveral sentiments has being raise sing the utility of audit commissions.According to Guy and Burke ( 2001 ) merely 22 % of the executive managers of FTSE 100companies have the construct that audit commission are helpful in accomplishing good corporate administration while 78 % remain unconvinced about the value of audit committees.However,89 % of the non-executive managers in FTSE 100companies have the believe that audit commissions are critical or helpful in accomplishing quality administration ( Guy and Burke,2001 ) .Menon and Williams ( 1994 ) carried out a survey on whether companies depends on the study of their audit commission, this survey reveals that companies do non trust on their audit study though they voluntarily formed the commissions, therefore these commissions were established for other intents. ( Menon and Williams,1994 ) .According to Joshi and Wakil ( 2004 ) , audit commissions are widely used in big companies and in companies with higher proportion of no executive managers ( Joshi and Wakil,2004 ) . Due to the demand of corporate administration in companies, a batch of force per unit area is being mounted on audit commissions in supervising the unity of the house ‘s fiscal coverage activities. There are higher outlooks from the non-executive managers functioning as audit commissions members ( Jonathan and Carey,2001 ) .It is recognize that the duties of audit commission are increasing which has to make with affairs refering hazard direction, internal control, other regulative demand, the independency of external hearers and besides the move to international accounting criterion ( Jonathan and Carey,2001 ) .Furthermore, many stakeholders are interested in the house ‘s activities but with different dockets therefore doing it more complex and hazardous helping in audit commission or on boards. The Sarbane-Oxley for case provinces that failure to execute will ensue to legal actions. Rezaee et Al ( 2002 ) pointed out that the inclusion of the study of audit commissions in proxy statements serves as challenges for the audit commissions. The commission members do non exert their full engagement in the readying of the fiscal statements therefore increasing their hazard ( Rezaee et al,2002 ) .2.10-ConclusionSurveies carried out in developed states shows that good corporate administration reduces deceitful gaining direction ( Rezaee et al,2003 ) . In fact, the corporate failures in some high net income companies are attributed to miss of argus-eyed inadvertence by the boards. It is instead unfortunate that there exist no empirical survey on the overall effectivity of corporate administration in Africa, Mangema and Chammisa ( 2008 ) observed that because of state differences in Africa, it will be much nicer and clear to analyze the assorted administration constructions individually in every state. This survey tries to bridge the spread in anterior survey by adding more in our apprehension of the operations and the major accomplishments of audit commissions in Cameroon. A batch of empirical surveies have being carried out refering the operation and the functions of audit commissions in different states. For case, in Canada, Maingunt and Zeghal ( 2000 ) investigated the aims, composing, choice, frequence of the commission meeting, the relationship of audit commission with direction and hearers. ( maingunt and zeghal,2000 ) . The old research in developing states did non turn to the point on how audit commissions relate with the direction, internal hearer and external hearers. In this survey, we want to make full in this spread by look intoing how audit commissions in Cameroon listed companies relate with the direction, internal hearers and external hearers.Chapter 3 The Theoretical models for Corporate Governance andAudit Committee3.1 IntroductionThe bureau theory have influenced recent believe about concern direction and policies. This tides that directors do non ever move to stockholders best involvement unless suited administration constructions are imposed to safeguard stockholders public assistance. ( Jensen and meckling, 1976 ) .The BODs have a great function to play here more particularly in the relationship among president and the CEO ( Tricker,1984 ) .the involvement of stockholders can merely be protected when the board chair is non detained by the CEO or when both the stockholders and the CEO have the same involvement ( Williamson, 1985 ) . Harmonizing to Berles and agencies ( 1932 ) a individual stockholder can non exert control over a house whose capital is expeditiously and sufficiently dispersed. Therefore capital scattering allows directors to exert illicit power on behalf of stockholder. Directors determinations and actions are been monitored and evaluated by the audit commission formed by the board.The audit commission so serves as a nexus between the direction and the board and besides to protect stakeholders welfare.. The bureau theory and the stewardship theory are two finance theories that covers the construct of corporate administration and the function of audit commission to heighten good administration.3.2 The Agency theoryAgency theory can be define as a contract in which one individual ( the principal ) engages another individual ( the agent ) to execute some services on his or her behalf ( Jensen and meckling,1976 ) . Harmonizing to Kiel and Nicholson ( 2003 ) , due to the separation of control and owne rship maps, directors has to pull off the house on behalf of the house ‘s proprietors. However conflicts ever arises when the directors are non pull offing the house to the proprietors best involvement ( Eisenhardt,1989 ) .The bureau theory therefore is more concern in analysing and work outing jobs or struggles that occurs between houses proprietors and directors. By so making, the bureau theory assumes that the function of a company is to maximise stockholders wealth ( Blair,1995 ) The bureau theory relay on the fact that, most concerns are runing with uncomplete information and with a batch of uncertainness. These conditions so exposes the concern to two major bureau jobs ; inauspicious choice and moral jeopardy. The job of inauspicious choice occurs when the stockholder ( chief ) can non determine whether or non he director ( agent ) accurately stand for his or her ability to make the occupation for which he or she is being paid for ( Eisenhardt,19989 ) .Moral jeopardy on the other manus is when the stockholder ( chief ) is non certain that the director ( agent ) has put forth his or her maximal attempts ( Eisenhardt,1989 ) .According to this theory, directors have superior information that which let them to hold advantage over the house ‘s proprietors, directors may so be more motivated to fulfill their single public assistance instead than the public assistance of the stockholder ( Berles and means,1967 ) It has being argued by Donaldson and Davis ( 1991 ) that unless quality corporate administration constructions are implemented to safeguard stockholders involvement, directors will non ever move to maximise stockholders returns. In this respect, the bureau theory supported that the intent of corporate administration is to cut down the potency of directors moving reverse to stockholders involvement. The bureau theory further argued on the point that, top direction of the house must hold important portion of the house so every bit to keep a positive relationship between corporate administration and the figure of stock owned by the top direction ( Mallin,2004 ) .According to Wheelen and Hunger ( 2002 ) , conflicts or jobs ever occurs in a company when the top direction is non willing to be held responsible for their determinations unless they have a sensible sum of stock on the company ( Wheelen and Hunger,2002 ) .The bureau theory besides advocated for the regulations and inducements that align directors behaviours with the involvement of stockholders ( Hawley and Williams,1996 ) , nevertheless it is practically impossible to compose down the regulations that governs all the scenarios that the employees brushs3.3 Evidence on struggle of involvement between stockholders and directors.following theoretical sentiments on the motivations for struggles of involvement among stockholder s and directors, a good figure of research have reveals plenty proof proposing the happening and significance of bureau struggles between companies stockholders and directors related with hazard disagreement, privilege and fiddling problem.these research centres their findings on the struggle of involvement sing affairs of compensation, variegation, and investing3. 3.1 Conflicts of involvement over compensationA batch of surveies observe the association between directors, compensation and company public presentation and consequences shows regularity with conflicting involvements between stockholders and directors. A typical research is that conducted by Jensen and Murphy ( 1990 ) .this survey found a weak relation between directors compensation and public presentation. To intensify this, there is the cogent evidence that directors wealth are more sensitive to the size of plus than to the market value ( Jensen and potato, 1990 ) , this so opposes Rosen ‘s ( 1982 ) premiss that the size and wage relationship is because large companies employ more able executives. Agrawal and Knoeber ( 1998 ) perceive that coup d'etat menace have two beliing effects on managerial compensation. The first premiss is that of the consequence of market competition for directors, this leads to less ability for troughs to demand higher wages.the 2nd premiss is that of hazard consequence which in contrasts leads to higher compensation due to the fact that higher coup d'etat menace can increase the likelinesss of a house losing its specific human capital or compensation deferral. This so oblige manages to bespeak for higher rewards to counterpoise the high hazards. ( Agrawal and Knoeber ( 1998 ) .Following the study that was carried out by Agrawal and Knoebe ( 1998 ) on 450 companies which were divided in to two, ( one set where directors see both effects of hazard and competition and the other set where troughs faced merely the consequence of competition in the market ) .According Agrawal and knoeber ( 1998 ) , the both effects are of import. everything being equal, through the consequence of competition, lower coup d'etat menace consequence to higher rewards which is in harmoniousness with the point of view of misalignment of stockholders involvement and troughs involvement.3.3.2 Conflict on variegation and wealth reduction investingAnother chief of struggle between stockholders and troughs is on the variegation schemes. There are theoretical claims that variegation have both costs and benefits to houses proprietors, nevertheless, bing cogent evidence suggest that the costs are more than the benefits. there is the averment that holds that, on an averages footing, variegation costs are far higher than the benefits, Morck, Shleifer and Vishny ( 1990a ; Bhagat, shleifer and Vishny ( 1990 ) servaes ( 1996 ) all found out that corporate variegation is associated with significant value loss. Some cogent evidence of bureau jobs can be found in acquisitions and investings. Several surveies have reveals that purchaser return from the announcement of acquisition are negative ( Roll, 1986 ) .According to Jensen ( 1986 ) the nastiest bureau jobs arise in companies with hapless investing gaps and excess cash.it was argued by lang, stulz and walking ( 1991 ) that buyer returns are likely to be lower when companies have small Tobin Qs and greater hard currency flows. On the other manus, McConnell and Muscarella found cogent evidence of wealth cut downing investing in oil geographic expedition, this is particularly when troughs holds small ownership bets ( Lewellen, Loderer and Rosenfeld ( 1985 ) .3.4 The stewardship theoryThe stewardship theory holds a different attack from that of the bureau theory, it foremost premiss is that, the company serves a big scope of societal intents instead than merely seeking to maximise the wealth of stockholders. The stewardship theory besides cal led the stakeholders theory assumes that corporations are societal entities that affect stakeholders welfare and stakeholders are persons interacting with the houses straight, hence, they can impact or affected by the accomplishment of the house ‘s aims ( Donaldson and preston,1995, freeman,1984 ) Harmonizing to Starik and Rands ( 1995 ) , a company ‘s success can be judge by its ability to add stakeholders value ( starik and rands,1995, Dunphy et al,2003 ) .stakeholders will merely return to a house for more when they ever get what they wantFreeman,1984, freeman and Mc Vea,2001 ) .Hence stakeholders are regarded as instrumental to corporate success and they tend to possess some moral and legal rights ( Donaldson and Preston,1995, Ulrich,2008 ) .Companies direction have to take in to consideration the claims or concern of stakeholders in their determination devising procedure ( Blair, 1995 ) , stakeholders participation in the company ‘s determination devising procedure heighten better efficiency ( Turnbull,1994 ) and besides reduces struggles ( Rothman and Friedman, 2001 ) . A company can utilize two attacks when sing or integrating stakeholders in their determination devising ( kaptein and van Tulder,2003 ) . These two attacks are reactive and proactive attack. Reactive attack on one manus is when the concern of stakeholders are non considered or integrated in doing corporate determination. This normally leads to misalignment of the company ‘s aims and the demands of stakeholders ( Mackenzie,2007 ) .The dirts of universe com was attributed to the fact that they ne'er integrated the stakeholder concern in their determination devising procedures ( Curral and Epstem,2003, Turnbull,2002, walkins,2003 and Zandstra,2002 ) .In respond to these dirts, some ordinances were set up by authoritiess with the purpose of alining stakeholders involvement with corporate aims. For case, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. On the other manus, the proactive attack is when companies integrate the concern of stakeholders in their corporate determination doing procedure, therefore establishes a good corporate administration construction ( de humor et Al, 2006 ) .3.5 Summary of the theories.The cognition of bureau theory can be credited to Coase ( 1937 ) nevertheless the thoughts of this theory was practical merely to managers and boards since the 1980's.Following. bureau theory, persons are self-interested and non selfless, therefore persons can ne'er be trusted to ever move in others best involvement. On the other manus, , persons will ever desire to maximise their public-service corporations maps, the bureau theory considered directors and stockholders relationship as a contract ( Adams, 2002 ) . This means that directors actions must be decently monitored to vouch that they ever act in stockholders ‘ best involvement. The stewardship theory on its portion opted that company ‘s board of managers and their Chief executive officer, moving as stewards, are encouraged to move in the company ‘s best involvements and non seeking to fulfill their selfish involvements. This is partially because, antecedently senior executives regarded companies as an extension of themselves ( Clarke, 2004 ; Wheelen & A ; Hunger, 2002 ) .The stewardship theory hence suggested that, like stockholders, top direction of a company should care more on the future success of the company ( Mallin, 2004 ) .Chapter 44.1 Corporate Governance issues in Developing Countries ( Cameroon )Harmonizing to Wallace ( 1990 ) , developing states are defined as those states found in mid-stream of development and are referred to anamorphous and heterogenous group of states found largely in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Middle East and Oceanea. There exist difference between developed and developing states in footings of civilization, po litical relations and market economic sciences ( Waweru and Uliana,2005 ) .Due to miss in skilled human resources, developing states hence find it hard to pull forces ‘s poetry with accounting and fiscal accomplishments in their commissions. The cultural fluctuation between extremely individualistic states ( like North America ) and extremely collectivized states ( like Africa ) necessitate different corporate administration agreements. Rabelo and Vasconcelos ( 2002 ) pointed out factors like economic tendencies towards globalisation, under developed capital market every bit good as authorities intercession has made the theoretical account of corporate administration to differ from those in European states and North America. Mensah ( 2002 ) argued that states in Africa are non good equipped in implementing the sort of corporate administration found in the western universe because of the economic and political governments qualifying these states ( illustration weak deceitful le gal and judicial governments, province ownership of companies as good limited capacity in skilled human resources. ) . Corporate administration constructions in less develop states are determined by the ardor to keep control by the bulk stockholders over houses, the dependant on debt finance, weak fiscal markets and uneffective legal system ( Rabelo and Vasconcelos,2002 ) .Developing states are ever confronted with jobs like less developed and illiquid capital markets, economic uncertainnesss, investors protection every bit good as weak legal and judicial control system ( Tsamenyi et al,2007 ) . Harmonizing to Goddard and Masters ( 2000 ) , audit commissions has become more relevant and prevailing recently but nevertheless there is dearth in the empirical research about their value. Kalbers and fogarty ( 1993 ) further indicated that the issue of whether audit commissions are truly dispatching their relevancy duty remain insufficiently understood, proposing therefore the demand to analyze the ways audit commissions are runing in developing states like Cameroon In Cameroon, most companies are owned by establishments and such establishments are owned by the province ( authorities ) , hence most board members are functioning the place as direction of stockholders non because of their making neither their experiences ( Mensah,2002 ) .Audit commissions operations in developing states are different compared with the patterns in developed states.In 2001, the Cameroon capital market authorization gave guidelines sing corporate administration activities for listed companies.one of this guideline was that which called all boards to organize audit commissions consisting at least three independent non-executive managers. Figure 2, corporate administration ( CG ) fram work in Cameroon4.2 The legal and Regulatory Framework of corporate administration for listed companies in CameroonCameroon operates under two systems of Torahs viz. ; the common jurisprudence and the civil jurisprudence. The bilingu